1. Archaeological Evidences that Supports Mahabharata (900-1000 BCE)
2. Challenges Wrt Translating Archaeological Cultures into History
3. Exploration
4. Excavation
5. Epigraphy
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Inscriptions as a Source of History
7. Famous Inscriptions Sites in India
8. Memorial Stones
9. Eras Used in the Indian Subcontinent
10. Numismatics
	10.1 Coins Mentioned in Literary Texts
	10.2 Types of Coins
	10.3 Post Mauryan Coinage
	10.4 Numismatics as Source to Construct History
11. Monuments
12. Previous Year Questions

- ! Approach should be mentioning the importance of inscriptions and coins as sources of History. Then important inscriptions and numismatics evidences be brought that have been used as a source of History.

The reconstruction of early Indian history is an important aspect of understanding the culture and traditions of the people inhabiting the Indian subcontinent. It is an arduous task to piece together the history of the region, especially when there is a lack of written sources. In such cases, inscriptions and coins prove to be invaluable sources for the reconstruction of early Indian history.

Inscriptions are some of the oldest sources of history and are usually found on stone or metal surfaces. These inscriptions provide valuable information about the rulers and their reigns, the socio-economic conditions of the time, and other aspects of the culture of the people inhabiting the region. Inscriptions also provide evidence of the religious and political beliefs of the people, as well as the various conflicts that occurred during that period for example the counterstruck coins of Nahapana by Gautamiputra Satkarni found in Nashik region.

Coins are another important source of history. Coins are usually made of metal and contain images, symbols, and inscriptions that provide information about the rulers, their reigns, and the socio-economic conditions of the time. For example the decreased gold coins from Skandagupta reign show decline in overall socio-economic prosperity in the region. Coins also provide evidence of the political and religious beliefs of the people, as well as the various conflicts that occurred during that period.

Some of the important inscriptions and coins that have been used as sources to construct early Indian history include the Ashoka inscriptions, the Junagarh inscription, the Hathigumpha inscription, the Mathura inscriptions, the Gupta coins, the Satavahana coins, the Kushana coins, and the coins from Mahajanpada period.

The Ashoka inscriptions are a series of edicts issued by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the third century BC. These inscriptions provide valuable information about the reign of Ashoka and his policies. The Junagarh inscription is an inscription found in Junagarh, Gujarat and is believed to be from the fifth century AD. This inscription gives information about the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

The Hathigumpha inscription is an inscription found in the Udayagiri caves in Odisha and is believed to be from the first century BC. This inscription provides information about the reign of the Kalinga king Kharavela and his genealogy. The Mathura inscriptions are a series of inscriptions found in Mathura and are believed to be from the first century AD. These inscriptions provide information about the socio-economic and religious conditions of the time.

The Gupta coins are a series of coins issued by the Gupta dynasty in the fourth century AD. These coins provide information about the reign of the Gupta emperors and the socio-economic conditions of the time. The Satavahana coins are a series of coins issued by the Satavahana dynasty in the first century AD. These coins provide information about the reign of the Satavahana rulers and the socio-economic conditions of the time.

The coins issued by the Kushana dynasty in the first century AD provide information about the reign of the Kushana rulers and the socio-economic, religious conditions of the time. 

Banking and usury in ancient India were a complex and varied phenomenon, with evidence of both practices appearing in various historical sources. Banking in ancient India is evidenced by references to the use of coins and metal currency, as well as the practice of lending and borrowing money. Usury, meanwhile, is evidenced by the Arthashastra, a treatise written by the ancient Indian economist Kautilya, which outlines the various methods and rules of usury.

The use of coins and metal currency was common in ancient India, with references to such practices appearing in the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and other ancient Indian texts. The Mahabharata, for example, refers to coins made of gold, silver, and copper, which were used to purchase goods and services. So does ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, Buddist texts like the Tipitakas and Jatakas. These coins were minted by the kings of ancient India, and were widely accepted as a form of currency.

The practice of lending and borrowing money was also common in ancient India. In the Mahabharata, for instance, the Pandavas borrow money from the Kauravas in order to pay for their own wedding expenses. This suggests that lending and borrowing money was a common practice in ancient India.

Usury, meanwhile, is evidenced by the Arthashastra, which outlines various methods and rules of usury. According to the Arthashastra, usury was practiced in ancient India in order to generate wealth and increase the wealth of the lender. The Arthashastra states that usury should not exceed 12% per annum, and that the lender should not charge more than the amount borrowed. Arthashastra also mentions about the different interests to be charged on different types of loans. 

As per Dharmashastra, caste was an important factor to be considered in Money Lending. It has been sanctioned as one of the occupations of Vaishyas. Buddhist Jatakas on the other hand have denounced usury. Manusmriti approves usury against Shudras but lending above the sanctioned rate was considered a sin.

Thus Banking and usury though widely practiced was applied in different ways to different sections of society. 

Epigraphic sources, such as inscriptions found on monuments, are one of the most important sources for the study of Indian history. Epigraphy provides researchers with insights into the arrangements of pre-modern Indian societies, including the development of political, social, and economic structures, as well as the emergence of religious practices.

This is particularly true in India where a number of epigraphic sources, such as copper-plate grants, inscriptions at temples and monuments, and manuscripts provide deep insights into the country’s history. Art and culture are reflected in the epigraphic sources in India more than political history. Historians contend that the great majority of epigraphic sources in India consist of religious texts and donations granted to temples, which reveal the presence of various religious practices and culture in the subcontinent.

For example, inscriptions at the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, reveal the patronage of the Nayaka rulers and their intellectual achievements in the fields of literature, art, music and dance, which helped to shape the culture of the region. In addition, inscriptions at the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, provide insight into the patronage of the Chalukyan dynasty and the development of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture in Maharashtra.

Furthermore, the development of Sanskrit and vernacular languages and literature is also revealed through epigraphic sources. For instance, a large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit and Tamil were found at the temple of Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, which provide insights into the philosophy and theology of Shaivism, as well as works of art, music and literature of the period.

Overall, epigraphic sources in India mainly reflect cultural and religious developments, rather than political history. The examples given above demonstrate the immense insight into Indian culture and history that can be gained from epigraphic sources, providing evidence of the importance of art and culture in India before the rise of modern nation states.

The Indian subcontinent has a rich archaeological heritage, with a variety of pottery cultures spanning the period from c. 2000 B.C. to c. 500 B.C. These cultures are distinguished by their unique pottery styles, which can be identified by the shapes, decorations, and materials used.

The Harappan culture (c. 2500-1700 B.C.) is one of the most well-known of these cultures, and is identified by its distinctive red and black pottery. This pottery is typically decorated with geometric patterns, and is made from a variety of materials including terracotta, shell, and stone.

Black and red ware (BRW) culture: This type of pottery was characterized by the use of a black and red slip on the surface of the pottery. This culture is associated with the early Vedic period and is found in northern and central India.

The Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1200-600 B.C.) is another important pottery culture of the Indian subcontinent. This culture is distinguished by its distinctive grey pottery, which is decorated with black and white geometric patterns. This pottery is typically made from clay, and is often found in burials.

The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 1000-500 B.C.) is another important pottery culture of the Indian subcontinent. This culture is identified by its black polished pottery, which is decorated with geometric and floral motifs. This pottery is typically made from clay, and is often found in burials.

Megalithic culture: This type of pottery is associated with the burials of the megalithic period and is characterized by coarse and undecorated pottery. It is found in southern and western India.