3.2 From Diarchy to Direct Control

From Diarchy to Direct Control

2020-04-27 15:00:19

Need for Direct Control

  • Single centre of power for far flung IN
  • Corruption, bribery reason for parliamentary intervention
  • Application of loan -> suspicion of mismanagement of resources
  • Clive, Hastings, Wellesley tried un-sucessfully
  • Adam Smith laissez fair was against monopoly which influenced decision of law makers

Warren Hastings 1772 - 1785

Administrative Reforms

  • He had to give a workable system of adm to Bengal and transform EIC merchants into administrators.
  • After removing the Dual System and dismissing Reza Khan and Shitab Roy the Governor and Co Directors started appointing Collectors to manage rev affairs.
  • He dec allowance of Nawab and redefined relations w/ Emepror Shah Aam -> took away Allahbad and Kara assigned to him.

Revenue Reforms

  • Resorted to system of trial and error/ experimentation to evolve a system of rev adm.
  • Made 5 yr settlement by farming out estates to highest bidder on assumption that Zamindars were mere tax gatherers w/ no proprietary rights -> miserable failure since bidders had no interest in land.
  • Indian Diwans under Provincial councils set up to supervise them -> replaced corrupt European collectors. Overall incharge was under Revenue Committee, Calcutta.
  • Other problems were of subinfeudation of revenue farming, proxies used by officers of EIC.
  • reverted in 1776 to old system of annual settlement where Zamindars were preferred. In 1781 Provincial councils were abolished, Collectors reappointed w/o power to settle rev.
  • Hastings left behind him a dark trail of misery, insurrection and famines.
  • Cornwallis in 1789 said that 1/3rd of EIC territory in Hindustan is now jungel inhabited by only wild beasts

Judicial Reform

1765-1772

  • Mughal sys of civil + criminal justice :
  • not centrally org
  • depend caste interpretation, muftis, kazis, mutual reconciliation,
  • punishment based on social status
  • Zamindars decided civil, criminal cases based on arbitration.

1772

  • Diwani and Faudari adalat set up at district level
  1. each dist diwani adalat/civil court was mostly jurist under Bishops courts headed by Collector.
    • Diwani Adalats were head EU District Collector assist Maulvis, Brahmans
    • cases relating to property, caste, marriage, debts etc settled
    • Involved sum upto Rs500
    • Appeals lay to Sadar Diwani Adala at Calcutta
  2. faujdari adalat/ criminal based on Muslim laws
    • under Kazi + Mufti.
    • European Collector had some control.
    • Could not give out death sentence or confiscate property for this confirmation of Sadr Nizamat Adalat was required headed by deputy Nazim.
  • Appeal court was Sadar Nizamat Adalat Calcutta under Prez + council mem.

1773 - 1781

  • 3.3 Regulating Act of 1773 estd Supreme Court at Calcutta but it had jusrisdiction only in Calcutta, consent of parties was required for the court to settle cases that was outside of it.
  • Hastings divested Dist collectors of judicial duties.
  • Mofusil court to head by EU covenanted officers.
  • 1775 : Hindu laws translated Eng NB Halhed, Muslim laws in 1778.

Commercial Reforms

  • Customhouses were suppressed only 5 were to be maintained.
  • Duties were lowered payable by all merchants Indian or EU
  • Steps taken to check misuse of dastaks and exploitation of weavers.
  • Efforts to make trade relations w/ Bhutan and Tibet
3.3 Regulating Act of 1773

Regulating Act of 1773

2021-07-05 09:31

Features of the Act of 1773

  1. Governor of Bengal as ‘Governor-General of Bengal’ Hastings became 1st.
  2. 4 man Executive Council to assist him. Majority decision was binding and GG voted only in case of equal division.
  3. Gov Bombay and Madras subordinate to GG
  4. SC at Calcutta (1774) with 1 chief justice and 3 other judges-> 1st Chief Justice was Elizha Impe
  5. prohibited private trade for EIC official
  6. Court of Directors (governing body of Company) report its revenue, civil, and military affairs

Analysis of the Act

  • strengthened British Government's control over EIC
  • Formally recognised parliamentary right to control IN affairs
  • Vaguely worded
  • ambiguities in SC jurisdiction
  • Unable to define issue of sovereignty in IN

Tiff b/w GG and Executive Council

  • Francis was one of the Executive councillors appointed was very ambitious and wanted to replace Hastings as GG. The Executive councillors presumed that entire EIC along w/ Hastings were all corrupt.
  • They denounced the Rohilla was and called back troops from there
  • Asked for all documents pertaining to transaction w/ Nawab of Awad and all correspondnece w/ Middleton the Br residence at Awadh, he was called back.
  • Accused Hastings of over estimating 5 yr revenue settlement and criticised him of cerating new criminal courts
  • Francis and Hastings had a pistol duel where former was injured. He left in 1780.
  • Trial of Nand Kumar : where he accused WH of accepting 3.5Lkh from Munny Begum to appt her as guardian of minor Nawab of Bengal. Counter charges of forgery was put on him and he was later hanged for it.

Amendment in 1781 to 1773 Act Was :

  • Jurisdiction of SC defined within Calcutta which was to administer personal law
  • Servants were immune if they did anything while discharging their duty
  • Social and religious usages of subjects were to be honoured

External Relations under WH

  • Stopped tribute to Emperor
  • Treaty of Banaras w/ Nawab of Awadh in 1773 against a possible Maratha Rohilla combination -> tropps for Nawab when called for for a lieu of Rs40 lakh
  • EIC participated in war against Rohilla's in 1774 with the Nawab who were defeated and Rohillkhand was annexed

First Anglo-Maratha War ( 1775-82 )

  • WH eyed ports of Salsette and Bassein and hoped for political ascendancy at Poona.
  • Raghunathrao killed nephew Narayanrao for Peshwaship and Signed treaty w/ Br at Bombay - To Surat in 1775 where English gave 2,500 soldiers
  • He Ceded territories of Salsette, Bassein and revenue rights of Surat, Bharuch. WH wanted to set up a Dual System in Poona the same as in Bengal.
  • Executive Council condemned the war as impolitic, unjust and unauthorised and sent Col Upton to annul To Surat new Treaty of Purandhar was signed
  • American War of Independence and arrival of French at Poona alarmed WH and he ordered seizing all FR settlements in India and also sent force to Bombay war ensued.
  • Marathas used Scorched Earth -> sign humiliating English defeat To Wadgaon - 1779 lost their territories gained since 1775 by To Purandhar

Provisions of To Wadgaon Were :

  • Salsette be with English
  • Territory conquered since To Purandhar (1776) restored to Marathas
  • In Gujarat, Fateh Singh Gaekwad remain in possession of territory
  • English should not offer support to Raghunathrao
  • Haidar Ali return all territory taken from English and Nawab of Arcot
  • English enjoy privileges at trade as before
  • Peshwa should not support other Eu nations
  • Warren Hastings rejected To Wadgaon, defeated Sindhias at Sipri
  • 1781 BR defeated Sindhias and captured Gwalior who acted as mediator and Treaty of Salbai (1782) ended the war - inconclusive -> Maratha-Eng friendship

Second Anglo-Mysore War ( 1780-84 )

  • WH ordered seizure of all FR settlements in India including Mahe. He feared port could be used by Hyder to receive FR help.
  • They marched forces accross jos territory w/o permission.
  • Haidar forged anti-English alliance with Marathas + Nizam and defeated BR under Hector Munro capturing Carnatic.

Alfred Lyall :  1780 was the lowest watermark for English fortunes in India.
  • To Mangalore both sides opted for peace as outcome inconclusive.
  • Haider died before treaty

  • When new Nawab Asaf ud daula was appt on death of Shuja. Benares was tranferred to Raja Chait Singh who agreed to pay 22lkh as annually. WH started demanding more money and troops which was against the treaty signed by them in 1775. Raja was unable to pay WH marched to Benares and imprisoned him and replaced him w/ minor nephew.
  • WH coerced the Begums of Nawab of Awadh Shuja to pay 105 lakh for subsidiary force stationed there. Alfred Lyall called this an ignoble undertaking.

Etimate of WH

  • only steadfast principle was that Might is Right
  • British possession remained unharmed save EIC territories in face of great odds.
  • Patronised oriental learning, wrote Intro to translation of Gita by Charles Wilkins
  • Accepted bribes per Moon this amounted to Rs30 lkh to save himself he granted favours to CoD etc.
  • Was impeached by Parliament but was acqutted of all charges
**Phillip Francis** : flourishing and rich India was reduced to beggary and ruin.  

**Percival Spear** : his achievements is an established fact and his character remains something of an enigma.