8.3 Development of Religions

Development of Religions

2020-04-27 11:52 :08

Buddhism

  • The Shungas under Pushyamitra and the Kanvas are said to have persecuted the Buddhists per Divyadana.
  • He attempted to destroy the Kukuta Arama monastery at Patliputra and fixed a prize of 100 dinaras on head of every monk.
  • Bharhut Stupa was built and Sanchi Stupa was enlarged to twice its size during Shungas reign → Divyadana may have exaggerated.
  • Milindapanha was compiled, 4th Buddhist council was organised under Kanishka.
  • The discussions of it (4th council) were compiled in the Vibhasha Shastras.
  • Kanishka also built a Stupa in Peshawar.
  • In the Deccan the Satvahana King Pulumavi elarged the Amravati stupa.
  • Nasik, Karle, Bhaje, Gunnar, Kanheri etc caves were made.

Mahayana Buddhism

  • The religious emotions of different people of different origins transformed Buddha into a God paving the way for Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Mahayana originated in the 1st century BC in the Andhra region.
  • Under Mahayana every being could aspire to Buddhahood through attainment of stages as Bodhisattvas.
  • One can become Boshisattva after meritorious acts called Paramitas. #PrelimsPYQ
  • They believed in sunyata or void, mantras, in numerous Buddhas.
  • Various sects emerged in different parts of the country
Name of Sect Area
Theravadins Kaushambi
Sarvastivadins Mathura
Bhadra Yanika Nashik
Dhanyakataka Amravati
Sthaviravadins North India
  • Buddhas was deified and worshipped as a God.
  • Bodhisattvas came to be revered as incarnation of Buddha.
  • Ideas of rebirth and merits strengthened.
  • Merits could also be transferred from one person to another.

Jainism

  • Kharavela kings patronised it and built caves in Udaygiri.
  • Under Kushana Mathura school of Art developed depicting images of Tirthankaras.
  • Athiyan Neduman dedicated a cave to Jaina's in South Arcot.
  • The migration of Bhadrabahu to Shravanabelagola was a mission to tackle famine and also to spread religion.
  • A number of inscriptions at Kanaki Tila in Mathura testify its existence there.
  • Kalcharya refers to Jaina expansion in Malwa.
  • Apart from Svetambara and Digambara another sect Yapaniya sect developed around 1st century AD.
  • They believed that even Women could attain mosksha and that Kevalins should take thier food in Morsals.

Brahmanism

  • Pushyamitra Shunga and Satakarni I were some of the patrons of it.
  • Gradual crystallization of Puranic Hinduism took place. Its central features were gods and goddesses and not rituals .
  • Shiva and Vishu gained supreme status leading to dev of Shaivism and Vaishnavism.
  • The idea of trinity fo Brahma as the creator Vishnu as preserver and Shiva as destroyer emerged.
  • Local Traditions were assimilated ex Tamil deities mentioned in the Sangam literature.
  • Worship of Yama, Kubera, Varuna and Vasava were also worshipped.
  • Animals like Elephants, cows etc were revered. Naga worship was popular in all parts and trees and tree spirit were also worshipped.

Vedic Ritulas

  • Many coins with a sacrificial posts called Yupa have been found. Ex coins of Yadheya and Arjunayanas. Clay seal from Sambha aslo shows a yupa.
  • Rajasthan has yielded sanskrit inscriptions inscribed on stone yupas.
  • Excavations at Mathura has given animal bones, ashes etc suggesting sacrifices.
  • Isapur in Mathura has given yupa with Sanskrit incription of Brahmana performing a 12 day sacrifice.
  • Kaushambi has yielded a brick altar in shape of an eagle along with bones of animals and humans including a skull suggesting purushamedha sacrifice.
  • Similar Garuda shaped structure has been found with head towards east and tail towards west in Uttarkashi in Uttarakhand.
  • Sanghol has given a number of fire altars/ havan kundas with ash, loose soil, wood charcoal, charred grains, seeds and fruit remains.
  • Vedic sacrifices continued to have importance and was basis for political legitimation for rulers.

Different Types of fire altars including an eagle shaped one.
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Puranic Hinduism

  • This time period was the formative phase for the dev of Hindu pantheon.
  • Certain textual references in Baudhayana Grihasutra mentions worship of images of deities.
  • Gautama Dharmashastra and Patanjali's Mahabhasya refers to images of deities being worshipped.
  • This was the times Hindu temples came into foray. Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodorus mentions about a Vasudeva temple nearby.
  • 2nd century Nagari inscription mentions temple of Samrakshana and Vasudev.
  • Remains of temple dedicated to
    • Matrikas/ Seven Mothers at Sonkh
    • Lakshmi Temple at Atranji khera
    • Shiva temple at Gudimallam and
    • Vishu and Shiva temples at Nagarjunakonda have been found.
  • Above examples are earliest evidences of Hindu temples in the subcontinent.
  • This was accompnied by gradual push of the Yaksha, Yakshini and Naga, nagis cult.
  • Hindu gods were closely related with performing complementary functions. Ex Brahma associated with Rajas/ creative principles, Vishnu with sattav/ passive principles and Shiva with Tamas/ fierce principle.

Shaivism

  • Shiva is worshipped in linga/ phallus form.
  • Vima Kadphises was an ardent devotee of Shiva. Vima Kadphises and Kanishka coins had Shiva image holding a trident.
  • Prakrit text Gathasptasati of Satvahana king Hala mention Shiva worship in areas around Andhra.
  • Tamil Sangam works define Shiva as the greatest of all gods and said to have destroyed the 3 heavenly cities (Tripurantaka).
    • Akanuru refers to Shiva as a 3 eyed god who wears Konrai flowers, bears crescent moon on his matted locks and Uma is his consort.
    • Nakkirar a Pandya king refers Shiva as god of death and destruction.
  • Parvati came to assumed an imp place and worshipped as Sati particulary worshipped by Satvahana kings.
  • Skanda also known as Kartikeya and Kumara was worshipped. Ganesha aka Vinayaka was a lesser deity during this time.
  • Vajanaseyi Samhit describes Rudra shiva as a powerful and fierce god.
  • Shvetashvatara Upanishad calls him god of destruction and one who grants ultimate release.
  • Ashtadhyayi refers many names of Shiva.
  • Mahabhasya has Rudra Shiva with medicinal herbs and one who is offered animal sacrifices.
  • Pasupata sect was dev by Lakulin/ Nakulin in Gujarat in 2nd century AD, worshipped Pashupati as Shiva. But some other texts have suggested Shrikantha.
    • It was the earliest Shaiva sect and had ascetic and mystic association.
  • The Kapalika and Kalamuka sect dev later.
  • Sculptural representation of Shiva lingas can be found in Bhuteshwar in Mathura dated 2nd cent BC.
  • Mukh Linga ie Lina with more than one faces is found in Gudimallam in AP.
  • Taxila and Ujjain coins have phallic emblems and some have Shiva and Bull.

Vaishnavism

  • aka Bhagvatism, it owed its origin from Upanishads. Rig Veda has 5 hymns dedicated to Vishnu described as a powerful god living in the mountains.
  • Taittiriya Samhita and Shatapatha Brahmana connect him with dwarfs.
  • Initially sect was confined to Mathura region.
  • Amalgamation of deities like Vishnu, Narayana, Vasudeva Krishna, Shir and Lakshmi as one was done probably to check Buddhism.
  • Narayan is believed to be a non vedic god mentioned in Rig Veda and Shatpatha Brahmana. Is associated with 5 day sacrifice called panchratra sattra. Mahabharata has called him a great yogi.
  • Worship of Vasudeva Krishna originated in the Mathura region. Ashtadhyayi had the earliest mentions of Vasudeva Krishna. Megasthenes has mentioned him as Herakles.
    • Chhandogya Upanishad mentions a sage name Krishna Devakiputra.
    • First detailed account of Krishna occurs in Harivamsha, a part of Mahabharata.
    • Various Puranas sucha as Vishnu, Padma, Brahmavaivarta and Bhagavata give further details about Krishna's life in Vrindavan.
  • The Besnagar pillar of Bhopal made by Heliodorus the greek ambassador of Antiocchus showed that he was a vaishanva.
  • Vishnu was worshipped in many avataras.
  • Various emblems like Garuda, Chakra etc was associated with him.
  • Initially Baladeva was considered more imporatant than Krishna.
  • Lakshmi was the consort of Vishnu.
  • 1st cent BC inscription from Chittorgarh in Rajasthan records the construction of a stone enclosure for the place of worship in honour of Samkarshana and Balaram.
  • 2nd cent BC Indo Greek coins found at Ai Khanoum in Afghanistan depict Krishna and Balarama. Was issued by king Agathocles. These coins have the earliest depictions of images of these gods and show that their worship had spread beyond the Mathura region.
  • Pastoral setting of stories of Krishna's childhood may have come from the Abhira tribes, foreign tribe who settile in Punjab in 1st cent BC.
  • Vaishanva pantheon came to include goddess Shri Lakshmi. Shri Sukta describes Shri as a moon like golden coloured deer decorated with ornaments made of gold and silver.
  • But earlier texts such as Vajnaseyi Samhita and Taittitiya Aranyaka suggest tha Shri and Lakshmi were initially 2 different goddessess.
  • Gaja Lakshmi sculpture is most frequent representation. It is also frequently represented on coins of kings such as Jyeshtamitra of Shungas and Scytho Parthian kings like Azes II and Azilies. [Fig Shows Gaja Lakshmi coin of Azilies]
    Pasted image 20220921142303.png
  • Idea of Avatara is important in the Vaishnava doctrine. Conventionally it is 10 but the names may vary in different texts.

Shakti Worship

  • Worship of goddesses associated with fertility is one of the oldest.
  • Puranas tried to bring some goddesses together presenting them as different manifestations of the female principle.
  • Durga Gayatri in Taittiriya Aranyaka. Durga is an impetuos and energetic. Daughter of the sun.
  • Mundaka Upanishad mentions Kali and Karali as tounges of Agni.
  • Periplus refers to Comari that may be a reference to Kanyakumari.
  • In Mahabharat Yudhishthira and Arjuna recite Durga stotra on 2 different occasions.
  • Has been associated with hills, rivers, caves, forests, gardens and animals.
  • Devi Mahamatya that incorporated into the Markandeya Purana contains verses in praise of Devi.
  • Mathura has yielded large no of Durga images including those of Mahishasuramardini from 200BC - 300CE.

Religion from 200 BC - 300 CE

  • #todo
  • Devotional worship of images became a cornerstone of religious life during this period.
  • Most striking new characterristic during this period was the beginning of new devotional practices within Buddhism, Jainism and emergence of early Hinduism.
  • Construction stone shrines gave them greater permanence and prominence. It acted as a social space where people participated in community worship. #concept

Worship of Yaksha and Yakshis, Nagas and Nagis

Coomaraswamy has argues that their worship became the source of devotional bhakti.

  • Yakshas were deities connected with water, fertility, trees, forest and wilderness. They transformed from benevolent, powerful diety to demonic, terrifying, subsidiary attendent figure in later times.
  • Yakshis were their female counterparts had had similar development. They were associated with fertility, childbirth and considered as protectress of children with power to ward off diseases.
  • Many stone images of them have been found in Mathura etc show that they were produced for urban clients in urban workshops and were not merely rural dieties.
  • Various smaller stone and teracotta images show that they were worshipped in private too.
  • Nagas and Nagis were also associated with water and fertility.
  • Were worshipped exclusively and later accomodated into the dominant religion.
  • 7 hooded naga image was found in Mathura with an inscription mentioning Dadhikarna, lord of the nagas made by stone masons, Chhandaka brothers.
  • A brick and stone temple was found in Sonkh, Mathura and another newar Rajagriha.
  • Krishna triumphing over naga could be seen as vicotry of vaishnavism over popular naga cult.

Goddessess, Votive Tanks and Shrines

  • Votive tanks are places where religious objects are deposited without the intention of recovery or use often done for religious purposes.
  • Goddesses were worshipped for fertility, prosperity, childbirth, safeguaring of children and protection against diseases.
  • Such figurines have been found in places near Mathura and in later periods show greater stylistic refinement, technical innovations inc in number and variety.
  • Have prominent breats, broad hips, wear ornaments ex necklaces, bracelets, earrings, girldles.
  • Terracotta figurines were most common votive offerings and votive tanks have been found in Chirand, Mathura.

PYQs and Answers

  1. Brief out the salient features of the religious development in the Post-Maurya period. How was contemporary art influenced by it? [1988, 60m]

1.  Development of Puranas: The Hindu scriptures known as the Puranas were compiled during this time period, which provided a wealth of information on Hindu myths, legends, and beliefs.
    
2.  Spread of Buddhism: Buddhism continued to spread across India during this time period, attracting a large following and influencing the development of various schools of thought.
    
3.  Development of Buddhist scriptures: The Buddhist scriptures known as the Pali Canon were compiled during this time period, which provided a comprehensive record of Buddhist teachings and beliefs.
    
4.  Emergence of Mahayana Buddhism: The Mahayana school of Buddhism emerged during this time period, which emphasized the possibility of attaining enlightenment in a single lifetime and the role of bodhisattvas as spiritual guides.
    
5.  Growth of Jainism: Jainism also saw significant growth during this time period, with the development of new religious texts and the creation of a robust Jain community.
    
6.  Development of Jain scriptures: The Jain scriptures, known as the Agamas, were compiled during this time period, which provided a comprehensive record of Jain beliefs and practices.
    
7.  Emergence of Hinduism: Hinduism saw significant growth and development during this time period, with the emergence of new schools of thought and the creation of Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas.
    
8.  Reinterpretation of the Vedas: The Vedas, the ancient Hindu scriptures, were reinterpreted during this time period, leading to new interpretations of Hindu beliefs and practices.
    
10.  Development of religious art: The religious developments of this time period inspired the creation of a variety of religious art, including rock-cut temples, sculptures, and paintings.
    
11.  Religious syncretism: The diverse religious developments of this time period led to a unique form of religious syncretism, where different religious beliefs and practices were blended to create a new and unique religious landscape.

- ! rest points from above
  1. Write a brief essay on: "Buddhist writing in Sanskrit in the post-Maurya period." [1993, 20m]

1.  The Ashvaghosha's "Buddhacarita": This is an epic poem that narrates the life of the Buddha and is considered to be one of the first biographies of the Buddha written in Sanskrit.
    
2.  The Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra): This text, which is one of the most important scriptures in Mahayana Buddhism, was written in Sanskrit and emphasizes the importance of the bodhisattva path to enlightenment.
    
3.  The Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower Ornament Sutra): This text, which is considered to be one of the foundational texts of Mahayana Buddhism, was written in Sanskrit and provides an extensive description of the Buddhist universe and the path to enlightenment.
    
4.  The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: This text was written in Sanskrit and focuses on the teachings of the Buddha in his final days, including his explanation of the nature of reality and the path to liberation.
  1. "The centuries between c. 200 B.C. and c. A.D. 300 constitute a landmark in the socio-religious history of India." Analyses the proposition. [1995, 60m]

The proposition that the centuries between c. 200 B.C. and c. A.D. 300 constitute a landmark in the socio-religious history of India is largely accurate. During this time period, India saw significant changes in its religious landscape, which had far-reaching impacts on the social, cultural, and political spheres.

1.  Emergence of new religions: The period saw the emergence of new religious traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism, which challenged the dominance of Brahmanism and the caste system. These new religions provided alternative spiritual and philosophical perspectives, and offered a more egalitarian approach to spirituality.
    
2.  Spread of Buddhism: Buddhism rapidly spread across India during this time period, attracting a large following and influencing the development of various schools of thought. It had a significant impact on Indian society, culture, and politics, particularly through its teachings of non-violence, compassion, and social equality.
    
3.  Development of Jainism: Jainism also saw significant growth and development during this time period, with the development of new religious texts and the creation of a robust Jain community. Jainism's teachings of non-violence and asceticism had a lasting impact on Indian society and culture.
    
4.  Reinterpretation of Hinduism: Hinduism also saw significant changes during this time period, with the reinterpretation of the Vedas and the emergence of new schools of thought such as Bhakti. The Bhakti movement, which emphasized devotion to a personal deity, marked a departure from the traditional caste-based system of Hinduism.
    
5.  Religious syncretism: The diverse religious developments of this time period led to a unique form of religious syncretism, where different religious beliefs and practices were blended to create a new and unique religious landscape.
    
6.  Influence on art and culture: The religious developments of this time period also had a significant impact on Indian art and culture, inspiring the creation of a variety of religious art and architecture, such as rock-cut temples, sculptures, and paintings.
  1. Examine the significance of the deities depicted on coins of the Kushanas. [2010, 30m]

1.  Representation of divinities: The coins of the Kushanas depict a variety of divinities, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Zoroastrian gods and goddesses. The depiction of these deities reflects the religious diversity of the Kushana empire, which was influenced by multiple religious traditions.
    
2.  Royal patronage: The depiction of divinities on coins was also a way for the Kushana rulers to show their royal patronage of the various religious traditions, thereby earning the support of their subjects.
    
3.  Propagation of religion: The depiction of divinities on coins was also a way for the rulers to propagate their religious beliefs and to spread their religious messages to a wider audience.
    
4.  Influence on art and culture: The depiction of divinities on Kushana coins also had a significant impact on Indian art and culture, serving as a model for future depictions of gods and goddesses in different media.
    
5.  Historical significance: The coins of the Kushanas are also significant from a historical perspective, as they provide valuable evidence of the religious and cultural landscape of ancient India during the time period