- ! Society Portion mentioned in Notes aboce

Al-Biruni was a Persian scholar who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni on his campaigns to India in the 11th century CE. He wrote a book called Kitab-ul-Hind or Tahqiq-i-Hind (The Book of India or The Verification of India) which is considered one of the most comprehensive and objective accounts of Indian society, culture, religion, science and history at that time.

Some of the salient features of Indian society on the eve of Mahmud Ghazni’s campaigns, as observed by Al-Biruni, are:

Indian society was divided into four varnas or castes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) based on birth and occupation. The caste system was rigid and hierarchical, with Brahmins enjoying the highest status and privileges, while Shudras were treated as untouchables and oppressed. There were also many sub-castes within each varna12.
Indian society was also divided into different religious sects such as Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas etc. Each sect had its own scriptures, rituals, customs and beliefs. Al-Biruni studied various Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas etc. and tried to understand their philosophy and cosmology. He also compared Hinduism with other religions such as Islam, Christianity and Zoroastrianism132.
Indian society was rich in culture and learning. Al-Biruni admired the achievements of Indians in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, grammar etc. He learned Sanskrit language and translated some works from Sanskrit to Arabic. He also appreciated the art, architecture, music and poetry of Indians.

Indian society was also marked by some drawbacks such as superstitions, idolatry, polytheism etc. Al-Biruni criticized some aspects of Hindu religion such as animal sacrifices, cremation rites etc. He also noted some social evils such as child marriage, sati (widow immolation), untouchability etc.