1.2 Literary Sources
Literary Sources
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1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Writing?
2. Earliest Examples of Deciphered Written Texts in Sub Continent?
3. Why is it Wrong to Divide Indian History into Hindu, Muslim and British Period?
4. Historiography
4.1 What Could Be Improved about Indian Historiography?
4.2 What Must Be Considered before Interpreting Literary Texts?
4.3 What Must Be Considered before Interpreting Literary Texts?
4.4 Categorisation of Literary Texts and Languages.
4.5 Categorisation of Literary Texts and Languages.
4.6 Certain Important Literary Sources
4.7 Indigenous : Primary and Secondary
4.8
5. Poetry
5.1 Sangam Literature ( 3rd Cent BCE - 3rd Cent AD)
5.2
- Harappan invented writing - 2600 BCE.
- Mesopotamians wrote on moist clay tablets Egyptians on papyrus of Reeds Harappans worte on Seals, Sealings.
- Mesopotamian and Egyptian scripts were called Cuneiform - 3400 BC, Hieroglyphics3100 BC respectively.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Writing?
Adv:
- Storing and transmitting ideas and knowledge across distance and time
- Exercise power
- Merchants record business
- Priest preserve religious text
- Poets etc could give permanence to their creative expression
- Imp to study and understand history
Disadv :
- Only a few could write
- Gave certain powers and privileges to those who knew
Earliest Examples of Deciphered Written Texts in Sub Continent?
- Brahmi inscriptions form Anuradhapura (Kaurava Pavillion), Sri Lanka dates to 4th Century BCE
- 2nd Century Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
- Sangam Literature.
Why is it Wrong to Divide Indian History into Hindu, Muslim and British Period?
- Religious affiliation of ruling elites is not the best method of classification.
- British period should then be called Christian period.
- Hindu period saw Indian kings patronize Buddhism and Jainism.
- Mughal period did not extend to the entirety of sub-continent and did not create a rupture in Indian society.
Historiography
- Scholarly activity of constructing and writing history is known as Historiography.
Who Were the Indologists? What Were Their Features?
- Indologists were 18th 19th century mostly European scholars aka Orientalists. major contribution was collecting, editing and translating ancient texts.
- Examples include William Jones, Henry Thomas Colebrooke etc
Features :
- Brahmanical perspective of Sanskrit texts were taken uncritically as reflecting the whole Indian past.
- Social and Religious institutions were critiqued from western point.
- Indian society was shown to be Static and Political sys as despotic.
- Exaggerate impact of foreign influence.
Nationalist Historians and Their Contribution
- Examples include R C Majumdar, VD Savarkar.
- Broadened view of ancient IN by adding South India in narrative, finding Non-monarchial polities.
- tried to search for golden ages during Vedas Gupta empires.
- Retained communal periodization.
- Valorized, Hindu Period, showed advent of Turks, Islam as calamity and tragedy.
Who Were the Marxist Historians?
- Shifted focus from event centred history to delineation of social and economic structure and process
- Found new history of non-elite groups
- Texts were taken uncritically
- Religion, culture side-lined
What Are Certain New Types of Historiographies?
- Feminist School
- Sub Altern School,
- PalaeoEnvironmental
What Could Be Improved about Indian Historiography?
- Better correlation b/w Archaeology and Literary sources.
- Narratives should not be text centric need to contrast w/ archaeological evidences
- Should represent various regions and communities like NE
- Issues and Institutions like family, class, varna and jati need to be viewed from long term perspective
- Varied and Complex Cultural traditions should be focused
- Greater attention to relationships w/ East and SE Asia eg trade networks, cultural transaction etc.
- Manipulation and Distortion of past to achieve political ends should be discouraged and avoided.
What Must Be Considered before Interpreting Literary Texts?
- Background and perspective biases
- place Where they were composed and their circulation
- transmission and target audience
- Place of the text within prevailing social and political power structures
- Poetry or drama requires sensitivity to literary conventions of the time
- Myths should not be confused with facts
Categorisation of Literary Texts and Languages
Q. How can ancient texts be divided into categories?
- Language, Genre, Content, Age and Tradition or Class of Literature.
Q. What are the examples of Dravidian Languages not spoken in south?
- Brahui in Baluchistan, Gondi in Central India and Malto in Rajmahal Hills
Q. Indian lanugages that belong to Austro-Asiatic family are?
- Santhali, khasi, Mundari
Q. Which Indian language does not belong to any known language family?
- Andamanese
Q. Which south Indian language has the 2nd oldest literature?
- Kannada
Q. How were the ancient Indian manuscripts made? What were they called?
- Palm leaves, covers made up of wood, dry palm petrioles and ivory. Talapatra and Olai
Q. The 1st literary references to writing and written documents come from?
- Buddhist Pali texts especially Jataka and Vinaya Pitaka.
Q. Ancient Indian texts are sometimes divided into?
- Religious and Non-religious/secular texts.
Certain Important Literary Sources
- 11.5 Literature > Kalhan's Rajtarangini (River of Kings): was written by Kalahana in 1150 - natural beauty of Kashmir and accounts of its kings consists of eight cantos called a taranga
- Classical Sanskrit refers to language whose rules were codified by 5th/6th century BCE grammarian Pannini in his book Ashtadhyayi
- Another important book on Sanskrit grammer is Patanjali's Mahabhashya is a commentary on Pannin's Ashtadhayayi and Katyayana's Varttika Sutra dated 150 BCE.
- Oldest surviving Prakrit grammar book is Vararuchi's Prakritaprakasha dated ?. E
- Tolkappiyam is oldest Tamil grammar book.
Indigenous : Primary and Secondary
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Primary
- provide raw info and first hand evidence of people, events, phenomena etc made just after the event.
- viz written materials like books, stories, documents, etc; Images; Objects or artefacts like clothing, pottery, tools, weapons, buildings, furniture etc.
- more genuine but could be biased.
Secondary
- describes event sometime after it has happened ex History books, pieces of art, literature, music, drama etc.
- description, interpretation, evaluation or analysis is done by them.
Poetry
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Sangam Literature ( 3rd Cent BCE - 3rd Cent AD)
When were the Sangam texts composed? What are its 2 types?
- B/w 3th Century BC - 3rd Century CE. It is divided into Akam dealt with love and Puram about war.
- 3 Sangam assemblies took place at different places under the patronage of Pandya kings of Madurai.
- Sangam Literature is Divided into 2 groups :
- Narrative called Melkannakku or 18 works having 8 anthologies called Ettutokkai and 10 short poems called Pattupattu. Works deal with glorification of heroes who participated in wars etc.
- Early ones : Ettutokai, Pattuppattu and 1st 2 books of Tolkappiyam - is a book on grammar
- Origin of Tamil epic narrative lies in late Sangam compositions such as the Kalittokai and Paripatal.
- Didactic works are called Kilkannakku or 18 minor works. They prescribe a code of conduct for the king and his court and various social gorups and occupations.
- Narrative called Melkannakku or 18 works having 8 anthologies called Ettutokkai and 10 short poems called Pattupattu. Works deal with glorification of heroes who participated in wars etc.
**AK Ramanujan** has described puram poetry as public poetry that dealt with themes such as good and evil, community and kingdom.
- Tamil didactic were written post 5/6th century are :
- Tirukkural on ethics, polity and love.
- Silappadikaram or Song of the Anklet. Zvelebil : "complex treatment of guilt, multi layered characters with human flaws and frailties are features."
- Manimekalai about alms bowl of a buddhist nun : considered inferior to SIlappadikaram, has strident buddhist tones, characters have simplistic features.
Genres of Tamil Poems
- Kalampakams were poetic compositions in which the last line, word, foot, or syllable of the preceding poem formed beginning of succeeding one
- Kovai were poems in which the verses are arranged in thematic sequence. Examples of Kovais are
- Pantikkovai 6th Century works in honour of Pandya King Netumaran
- Manikkavachakar's Tirukkovaiyar in 9th Century in praise of Shiva
- Poyyamolip Pulavar's Tanchaivanan Kovai in 13th century for Tanchaivanan a minister of Pandya King
- Ula literature comprised songs in praise of gods
- Tutu poetry consisted of poems where message is delivered to a god
- Silappadikaram (The Song of the Anklet) was written by Ilankovatikal
- Manimekalai (The Jewel Belt) was written by Sattanar.
- Kamban wrote Iramavataram it was about Rama's legend.
Q. What are some tamil literary works concerning Alvars/Vaishnava saints?
- Peyalvar, Puttalva, Poikaialvar. Most imp is Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nathamuni.
Q. What are some tamil Nayanar/Shaiva literary works?
- Nambi Andar Nambi's Tirumurai and Tiruttondar Tirruvantati. 12th Century Periyapuranam - a collection of accounts of Shaiva saints.
Literary Compositions
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- Is a type of Secular literature
Earliest Sanskrit Playwrights Include :
- Ashvaghosha's Buddhacharita, Sariputraprakarana, and Saundarananda.
- Bhasa wrote Pancharatra, Dutavakya, Balacharita, and Svapna-Vasavadatta
- Kalidasa (4th/5th Century) wrote Abhijnana-Shakuntala, Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiya. His poetic works are Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, and Meghaduta
- Certain other early medieval poets include Bharavi, Rajashekhara, and the poetess Vijayanka
- Literary texts that were based on historical themes are Vishakhadatta's Mudrakshasa set during Chandragupta's reign, Devichandraguptam set during Ramagupta;s reign. Others are Panchatantra and Kathasaritasagara.
Famous Ancient Biographies Were :
- Banabhattas's Harshacharita written in 7th Century, also wrote a prose romance called the Kadambari.
- Vakpat wrote Gaudavaha in 8th century about Yashovarman of Kannauj.
- Bilhana wrote Vikramankadevacharita in 12th Century about Chalukya Kings especially Vikramadiya I.
- Nandikkalambakkam (9th century) is about Pallava king Nandivarman III.
- 11th century work Kalinkattupparani by Cheyankontar based on war b/w Chola King Kulottunga and Anantavarman Chodaganga of Kalinga.
- Sandhya Kara Nandis's Ramcharita about Rampala of Bengal and Ramayana.
- 12th Century Kumarapalacharita by Hemachandra about Chalukya kings of Gujarat.
- Prakrit was lingua franca in 3rd century BC
Scientific Literature
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- Considered as Secular Literature
Astrology
| Writer | Works | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Kalyāṇavarman | Sārāvalī | |
|
| Parashara | Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra |
|
Medicine
| Writer | Works | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Charaka | Charaka Samhita |
| Kashyap | Kashyap Samhita |
|
| Madhav | Nidāna |
|
| Sushruta | Sushruta Samhita |
|
| Vagbhata | Ashtanga Sangraha, Ashtanga Hridaya Samhita |
|
Mathematics
| Writer | Works | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Aryabhata | Āryabhaṭīya, Arya-siddhanta | |
| Baudhayana | Shulba Sutras, Shrauta Sutra, Dharmasūtra | |
| Bhāskara I | Āryabhaṭīyabhāṣya, Mahābhāskarīya, Laghubhāskarīya | |
| Bhāskara II | Siddhānta Shiromani (four volumes: Lilāvati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita and Golādhyāya) | |
| Brahmagupta | Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta | |
| Halayudha | Mṛtasañjīvanī | |
| Mahāvīra (mathematician) | Ganit Saar Sangraha | |
| Parameshvara | Bhatadipika, Karmadipika, Paramesvari, Sidhantadipika, Vivarana, Drgganita, Goladipika, Grahanamandana, Grahanavyakhyadipika, Vakyakarana | |
| Varāhamihira | Pancha-Siddhantika, Brihat-Samhita, Brihat Jataka, Daivaigya Vallabha, Laghu Jataka, Yoga Yatra, Vivaha Patal | |
| Virasena | Dhavala | |
| Baudhayana Rishi | Baudhayana Sutras,Baudhāyana Sulbasūtra, Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra |
Literature in Regional Languages
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What some examples of post 5th/6th century tamil didactics?
- Tirukkural, Silappaikaram and Manimekalai.
Early Kannada Literature :
- Oldest surviving is Kavirajamarga a 9th century work on poetics. Most of them had Jaina themes.
Best known poets and their were - Pampa author of Adi Purana. He also wrote Vikramarjunavijaya.
- Ponna wrote in Sanskrit also. Was given title of Ubhaya Kavi Chakravarti
- Chavunda Raya wrote Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
- 12th century, Nagachandra or Abhinava Pampa wrote Ramachandracharitra Purana
- 12th century work of Neminatha's was Lilavati
Telugu Literature
- Earliest was written by Nannaya in 11th century it was rendering of Mahabharata.
- Tikkana a minsiter of the court of Manumasiddhi of Nellore added to Nannaya's Mahabharata also wrote Uttaramayanamu
- Nanne-Choda wrote Kumara sambha vamu
- Telugu lit reached maturity during reign of Kakatiya
Bengali Literature
- Bengali comes from the word 'Vengali' meaning poor.
Q. Which early Bengali texts concerns about agriculture?
- Dakar Bachan and Khanar Bachan
Brahmanical Religious Literature
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Vedic Texts
- How does the Vedic texts describe the Universe and Bharata?
- Shaped like an egg, vertically divided into 3 division of celestial world, earth and netherworlds.
- Earth is a flat disc of 7 circular land masses of salt water, mollases etc.
- At center of Earth is Jambudwipa, its south lies Bharatavarsha consisting of 9 divisions/Khandas.
- In Puranas Cosmography Blends with Geography.
- In the Hindu tradition, the Vedas have the status of Shruti.
- are thought to embody an eternal, *self-existent *truth realized by the rishis(seers) in a state of meditation or revealed to them by the gods.
- category of Smiriti ('remembered') texts, include Vendanga,Puranas, Epics, Dharamshastras and Nitishastras
The various types of compositions in Vedic texts that show historical consciousness are :
- Dana Stutis : hymns praising generosity and exploits of kings.
- Gathas : songs in praise of kings sung duing sacrifices.
- Narashamsis : were used in rituals and preserved in Brahmanas and Grihasutras
- Akhyana : narrative hymns in dialogue form.
What are the problems with using Vedic texts as source of history?
- Original core is not available
- Requires interpretation of words and phrases
- Was not popular literature
- Transmitted orally
- Uncertainity of the period of composition
Vedas
- What are the different Vedas. Each veda is divided into how many parts what are they?
- Rig, Sam, Yajur and Atharva vedas.
- divided into Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad.
- Rig Veda consists of 1028 hymns arranged into 10 books
- Sam Veda consists of 1810 verses borrowed from Rig V
- Yajur Veda gives details of performance of rituals
- Atharva Ved contains hymns but also spells and charms
- Brahmana explains Samhita portion details sacrificial rituals and outcomes
- Aranyakas/ forest books interpret sacrificial ritual in symbolic an philosophical way
- Upanishads are 108 in number of which 13 are imp
- contain philosophical ideas sacrifice and associated with concept of Ataman and Brahman.
- In Rig Vedic books first comes the hymns to Agni, then Indra and other. The arrangement follows a pattern of decreasing number of stanzas per book
Recensions of Vedas
- The various recension of Vedas are : (more details required)
- Rig Veda : Shakal Shakha further divided into Shukla and Krishna
- Yajur Veda : Shukla and Krishna Shakha
- Sama Veda has : Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya
- Atharva Veda : Shaunaka and Paippalada.
What Are the Problems Associated with Vedas as Source of History?
- Dating the Rig Veda many take 1500-500 BC it is based on dates suggested by Max Muller.
- Problem in corelating archaeology with what's written on the vedas.
Upanishads
- #todo
- There are 108 Upanishads among which 13 are important.
- They contain different philosophical ideas about sacrifice, body and universe but most closely associated with concept of atman and brahman.
Vendangas
- are supplementary to the Vedas
- texts aimed at *helping proper recitation*, use and understanding of Vedas.
- include works on phonetics, metre, grammar, etymology, ritual and astronomy.
Vedanga literature includes Kalpasutras divided into: - Shrautasutras : dealing w/ Vedic sacrifices having more than 3 fires, Big public sacrifices, royal coronation ceremonies
- Grihasutras : Simple domestic sacrifices involve only one fire, for birth naming, sacred thread, marriage, funerals
- Dharmasutras
- Sulvasutra - measurement for construction of sacrificial altars
Epics
- The Mahabharata and Ramayana falls in the category of Smriti and Itihasa Literature.
- Mahabharata was composed b/w 400 BCE to 400 CE and Ramayana from 5th/4th Century BC to 3rd Century CE.
- Their language of initial composition was Sanskrit
What are the reasons which make us think that Mahabharata was written before Ramayana?
- Setting of it is in the upper Indo Gangetic divide
- Strong Women characters suggest earlier stage of social development
- Practice of Niyoga was an early one
Ramayana consists of 2 main recension :
- Northern : it is more polished and refined
- Southern consists of 7 Kandas/books of which Bala Kanda and Uttara Kand are later versions
Various other telling of Ramayana are :
- Paumachariu of Vimalasuri in Prakrit which is a Jain Version.
- Dashratha Jataka in Pali is a Jain version.
- Tamil version is Iramavataram by Kamban of 12th century.
- Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas written in 16th century.
- JL Brockington has divided R into 5 chronological and cultural stages from starting from 5/4th Century BC to 12th Century.
- Changes that have been observed were change in heroic element, geographical awareness, subduction of women, spread of urbanisation, dev of varna system.
- Religious and aesthetic empahsis inc, pre Eminence of Brahmanas, further degradation of womens status viz sati and inauspiciousness of widows.
- James Fitzgerald sees M as Brahmanical resposnse to inc popularity of Buddhism and Jainism.
Puranas
- According to tradition the Puranas were composed by Vyasa.
18 Mahapuranas composed by around 4th/5th Century CE. discuss 5 characterstics they are :
- Creation of World or Sarga
- Recreation or Pratisarga
- Periods of Manus or Manvantaras
- Genealogies of gods and rishis called Vamsha
- Account of Royal dynasties called vamshanucharita up until the Early Guptas
Puranas: statements are made in future tense - Discus cause and effect of events
Which Puranas provide info about ancient political history?
Vayu, Brahmanda, Brahma, Harivamsha, Matsya and Vishnu Purana.
What dynasties do they account?
Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shunga, Kanvas and Satvahanas/Andhras.
- Puranas were mostly compiled during the Gupta age.
- have accounts of mountains, rivers, places etc ande mention Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti.
What are some later composed puranas? - Bhagvata Purana 10th century
- Skanda Purana 14th-16th century
Dharmshastras and Nitishastras
What are Dharmashastras? What was the concept of Dharmashastras?
- Dharmashastras refers to ideal conduct of a peson in a society.
- Concept was that Universe is governed by certain natural laws and moral laws should be in consonace with those natural laws.
- The various goals aka purusharthas of Dharmashastras are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.
- divided into Dharmasutras 600-300 BC, Smriti 200 BC - 900 CE and 3rd includes commentaries called Tikas and Bhashyas, Nibandha and compendiums called Sangraha composed b/w 9th-19th century.
- are part of Vendanga literature and Dharmashastra corpus.
- Recognises 3 sources of Dharma Shruti, Smriti and Sadachara/Shishtachara.
- Dharma depends on gender, age, marital status, varna and ashrama(brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sannyasa).
- Did not apply to Women or Shudras.
Buddhist Religious Literature
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Buddhist Canonical Literature
- They lay down basic tenets and principles of any religion
- 3 Tipitakas constitute the Buddhist Canonical Literature
- Diff B schools have diff canonical literature
Q. What are the different Tipitakas?
- Sutta Pitaka : It has Buddha's discourses in Dialogue form
- Vinaya Pitaka : Rules for monks and nuns of sangha. It includes Patimokkha.
- Abhidhamma Pitaka : has summary, questions and answers about Sutta Pitaka.
- The Tipitakas are further divided int Nikayas viz Digha, Mjjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, Khuddaka of the total 15 Nikayas
Q. The Jatakas, Dhammapada and Theragatha are part of which Nikaya?
- Khuddaka Nikaya
- Books of songs of Buddhist monks and nuns that describes their experience of renunciation : Theragatha and Tehrigatha
Buddhist Non-Canonical
- What? When? Where? Why? How?
Pali Non Canonical
- Earliest ones were written in Pali language